Shakespeare's Invented Words

William Shakespeare is credited with inventing or first using approximately 1,700 words in written English. While he did not invent English as a language, he was remarkably creative in coining new terms, adapting existing words to new purposes, and combining words in novel ways. Many words now considered standard English entered the language through Shakespeare's plays and poetry.

Historical Context

Shakespeare wrote during the Early Modern English period (late 16th and early 17th centuries), a time of rapid linguistic expansion. The English language was still developing, and writers had considerable freedom to invent new words or adapt existing ones. Shakespeare's position as a prolific playwright with works widely performed and eventually published gave his neologisms unusual staying power.

What Does "Invented" Mean?

When scholars say Shakespeare "invented" a word, they typically mean one of the following:

  1. First recorded use in English: The word appears in Shakespeare's work but is not documented in earlier written sources
  2. New word formation: Combining existing words or adding prefixes/suffixes in novel ways (e.g., "fashionable" from "fashion")
  3. Semantic shift: Taking an existing word and using it in a completely new sense (e.g., "elbow" as a verb meaning to push with one's elbow)
  4. Borrowed and popularized: Words borrowed from other languages that Shakespeare popularized and naturalized in English

Notable Examples

Adjectives (Descriptive Innovation)

Cold-blooded (King John)

Without emotion or pity; calculated and cruel
- From the combination of "cold" + "blooded," suggesting cruelty as a physical characteristic
- Now a standard term in English for unfeeling, premeditated cruelty

Green-eyed (The Merchant of Venice, Othello)

Envious or jealous
- Shakespeare's phrase "the green-eyed monster" (referring to jealousy in *Othello*) remains iconic
- "Green with envy" derives from this Shakespearean image

Fashionable (Troilus and Cressida)

In style; conforming to current fashion
- Formed from "fashion" + "-able," a productive suffix
- Marked the shift from "fashion" as mere clothing to an abstract ideal of style

Lacklustre (As You Like It)

Dull, uninspired, lacking brightness
- Compound of "lack" + "lustre" (shine)
- Still widely used to describe uninspiring performances or ideas

Uncomfortable (Romeo and Juliet)

Causing discomfort; uneasy
- Prefix un- + "comfortable," though "comfortable" itself had only recently been borrowed into English
- Extended the adjective to mean emotional unease, not just physical discomfort

Unearthly (The Winter's Tale)

Unnatural, mysterious, otherworldly
- Literally "not of this earth"
- Used to describe things that seem supernatural or alien

Verbs (Action Words)

Elbow (King Lear)

To push or jostle with one's elbow
- Converts a noun (elbow) to a verb, describing a physical action
- "Elbow room" (space to move freely) derives from this usage

Swagger (Othello)

To walk or conduct oneself with arrogant confidence
- Originally meant to strut or display oneself ostentatiously
- Now standard slang for confident, often cocky bearing

Dwindle (Henry IV, Macbeth)

To gradually become smaller or diminish
- Possibly related to "dwine" (to waste away), but Shakespeare popularized this form
- Essential modern English word for gradual reduction

Rant (Hamlet)

To speak at length in an impassioned, incoherent way
- Originally referred to a theatrical style of bombastic declamation
- Now refers to passionate, often angry speech

Undress (The Taming of the Shrew)

To remove one's clothes; to disrobe
- Simple prefix un- + "dress," but this coinage marked the first recorded use
- Also used figuratively to mean to reveal or expose something hidden

Nouns (Concrete and Abstract)

Addiction (Henry V)

The condition of being addicted to something
- Formed from Latin "addictus" (enslaved, devoted to)
- Now universally understood, especially in modern discourse on substance abuse

Alligator (Romeo and Juliet)

A large semi-aquatic reptile (from Spanish "el lagarto," the lizard)
- Shakespeare introduced the word to English speakers unfamiliar with New World fauna
- Became the standard English term for the American crocodilian

Moonbeam (A Midsummer Night's Dream)

A ray of moonlight
- Poetic compound of "moon" + "beam"
- Captures Shakespeare's ability to create luminous, imaginative imagery

Critic (Love's Labour's Lost)

A person who judges or assesses artistic work
- From Greek "kritikos," but Shakespeare established this usage in English
- Central to modern literary and cultural discourse

Manager (Love's Labour's Lost, A Midsummer Night's Dream)

One responsible for controlling or directing staff
- Formed from "manage" + "-er"
- Now essential vocabulary for organizational hierarchies

Uncommon and Expressive Words

Zany (Love's Labour's Lost)

Amusingly unconventional; a foolish or eccentric person
- From Italian "zanni," a stock comic character in commedia dell'arte
- Shakespeare popularized this term, which remains playful slang

Nervy (Coriolanus)

Bold, vigorous, or impudently confident
- Formed from "nerve" + "-y"
- Modern usage often implies audacious rudeness rather than vigor

Yelping (Henry VI, Part 1)

Sharply barking or crying out
- Onomatopoetic verb form
- Still used to describe sharp, piercing sounds

Word Formation Patterns

Shakespeare's neologisms follow recognizable patterns:

1. Prefix Addition

2. Suffix Addition

3. Compounding

4. Semantic Shift (Verbing a Noun)

5. Borrowing and Naturalization

Distribution Across Plays

Shakespeare's word innovations appear throughout the canon, but some plays are particularly rich in neologisms:

Play Notable Invented Words Count
Love's Labour's Lost critic, manager, fashionable, zany, obscene 5+
A Midsummer Night's Dream moonbeam, manager 2+
Othello denote, swagger, green-eyed 3+
Hamlet rant 1+
King Lear elbow, cold-blooded 2+
The Merchant of Venice green-eyed 1+
Macbeth dwindle 1+

Impact on Modern English

Survival and Frequency

Many of Shakespeare's neologisms have become so embedded in modern English that their origin is forgotten:
- addiction — ubiquitous in medical, psychological, and popular discourse
- fashionable — foundational to fashion and style criticism
- green-eyed (monster) — instantly recognized idiom for jealousy
- dwindle — essential verb for describing gradual reduction
- manager — cornerstone of organizational vocabulary

Literary and Metaphorical Legacy

Others remain most vivid in their original contexts:
- moonbeam — survives as poetic, somewhat archaic term
- zany — retains comedic, theatrical associations
- swagger — carries Shakespearean associations with arrogant confidence

Methodology: How Do We Know?

Scholars determine which words Shakespeare "invented" or first used in written English through:

  1. The Oxford English Dictionary (OED): The definitive source, which traces the first recorded use of each English word
  2. Textual evidence: Comparing Shakespeare's works (first editions: Quartos and First Folio) against earlier written sources
  3. Linguistic analysis: Examining word formation patterns and etymology
  4. Scholarly consensus: Modern linguists and editors acknowledging first recorded uses

Important caveat: "First recorded in writing" does not mean Shakespeare invented the word ex nihilo. Many were likely spoken in everyday English but never written down before Shakespeare used them. Others were formed following productive patterns of English word-making.

Broader Significance

Language as Living Art

Shakespeare's linguistic creativity illustrates how language evolves through use by skilled writers. He did not write a prescriptive grammar or dictionary; rather, he wrote plays to be performed and understood. His willingness to innovate—to use words in new ways, to coin terms that fit emotional or dramatic needs—demonstrates language as a living, dynamic system.

The Playwright's Advantage

As a working dramatist, Shakespeare had several advantages:
- Performance: Words were heard and repeated, increasing their staying power
- Popularity: His plays were widely performed and eventually printed
- Variety: Writing across comedies, tragedies, and histories allowed him to explore different registers and vocabularies
- Verse: Metrical and rhyming verse sometimes required novel word choices to fit the form

Legacy for English Speakers

Modern English speakers inherit approximately 1,700 Shakespearean neologisms. While many are now invisible—we don't think of "fashionable" or "addiction" as "Shakespearean"—they remain testament to his generative power over the language.

Cross-references

Sources:
- Project Gutenberg eBook #100: The Complete Works of William Shakespeare
- Oxford English Dictionary (OED) — definitive source for first recorded uses
- QuillBot Blog: Words Invented by Shakespeare
- Modern linguistic scholarship on Early Modern English and Shakespeare's linguistic innovation